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Pigeons have featured in numerous experiments in comparative psychology, including experiments concerned with animal cognition, and as a result there is considerable knowledge of pigeon intelligence.

Available data show^{[citation needed]}, for example, that:

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• Pigeons have the capacity to share attention between different dimensions of a stimulus, but (like humans and other animals) their performance with multiple dimensions is worse than with a single stimulus dimension.
• Pigeons can be taught relatively complex actions and response sequences, and can learn to make responses in different sequences.
• Pigeons readily learn to respond in the presence of one simple stimulus and withhold responding in the presence of a different stimulus, or to make different responses in the presence of different stimuli.
• Pigeons can discriminate between other individual pigeons, and can use the behaviour of another individual as a cue to tell them what response to make.
• Pigeons readily learn to make discriminative responses to different categories of stimuli, defined either by arbitrary rules (e.g. green triangles) or by human concepts (e.g. pictures of human beings).
• Pigeons do less well with categories defined by abstract logical relationships, e.g. 'symmetrical' or 'same', though some experimenters have successfully trained pigeons to discriminate such categories.
• Pigeons seem to require more information than humans for constructing a three-dimensional image from a plane representation.
• Pigeons seem to have difficulty in dealing with problems involving classes of classes. Thus they do not do very well with the isolation of a relationship among variables, as against a representation of a set of exemplars.
• Pigeons can remember large numbers of individual images for a long time, e.g. hundreds of images for periods of several years.

All these are capacities that are likely to be found in most mammal and bird species. In addition pigeons have unusual, perhaps unique, abilities to learn routes back to their home from long distances. This homing behaviour is different from that of birds that learn migration routes, which usually occurs over a fixed route at fixed times of the year, whereas homing is more flexible; however similar mechanisms may be involved.

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Pigeons showed mirror-related behaviours during the mirror test.^[1]

Discrimination abilities of pigeons[edit]

In a famous article in 1995, Watanabe, Sakamoto and Wakita described an experiment which showed that pigeons can be trained to discriminate between paintings by Picasso and by Monet. The birds were first trained on a limited set of paintings: when the shown painting was a Picasso, the pigeon was able to obtain food by repeated pecking; when it was a Monet, pecking had no effect. After a while, the pigeons would only peck when shown Picasso paintings. They were then able to generalize, and correctly discriminate between paintings of the two painters not previously shown, and even between cubist and impressionist paintings (cubism and impressionism being the two stylistic schools Picasso and Monet belong to). When the Monet paintings were shown upside down, the pigeons were not able to properly categorize anymore; showing the cubist works upside down did not have such an effect.

In 1995, the authors won the humorous Ig Nobel Prize in psychology for this work.

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In a later paper, Watanabe showed that if pigeons and human college students undergo the same training, their performance in distinguishing between Van Gogh and Chagall paintings is comparable.

Similar experiments had shown earlier that pigeons can be trained to distinguish between photos showing human beings and those that do not, and between photos showing trees and those that do not, among many other examples.

In all these cases, discrimination is quite easy for humans, even though the classes are so complex that no simple distinguishing algorithm or rule can be specified. It has therefore been argued^{[citation needed]} that pigeons are able to form 'concepts' or 'categories' similar to humans, but that interpretation is controversial. Nevertheless, the experiments remain important and often cited examples in cognitive science.

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In a 2015 paper published by Levenson et al.^[2] it was shown that rock dove pigeons (Columba livia), which share many visual system properties with humans, can serve as promising surrogate observers of medical images, a capability not previously documented. The birds were tested on their ability to distinguish benign from malignant human breast histopathology images and could even apply their learnings to previously unseen images. However when faced with a more challenging task, they reverted to image memorisation and thus showed little generalisation to novel examples.

See also[edit]

References[edit]

1. ^Epstein, Lanza, & Skinner (1981) R. Epstein, R.P. Lanza and B.F. Skinner, 'Self-awareness' in the pigeon, Science 212 695-696
2. ^ ^abLevenson, Richard M.; Krupinski, Elizabeth A.; Navarro, Victor M.; Wasserman, Edward A. (2015-11-18). 'Pigeons (Columba livia) as Trainable Observers of Pathology and Radiology Breast Cancer Images'. PLOS ONE. 10 (11): e0141357. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0141357. ISSN1932-6203. PMC4651348. PMID26581091.

• Watanabe, S.: 'Van Gogh, Chagall and Pigeons: Picture Discrimination in Pigeons and Humans', Animal Cognition, vol. 4, nos. 3-4 (2001), pp. 147–151.
• Huber, Ludwig. 'Visual Categorization in Pigeons'.
• Porter, D. and Neuringer, A. 'Music discriminations by pigeons.' Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behaviour Processes, 10 (1984), pp. 138–148

External links[edit]

• Avian Visual Cognition edited by Robert G. Cook - a cyber book containing much material about pigeons

Pigeons have better eyesight than humans do and have been trained by the US Coast Guard to spot orange life jackets of people lost at sea. They also carried messages for the US Army during World Wars I and II. (Credit: iStockphoto)

Pigeons can categorize and name both natural and human-made objects—and not just a few. The birds in a new study categorized 128 photographs into 16 categories.

The finding suggests a similarity between how pigeons learn the equivalent of words and the way children do, according to Ed Wasserman, professor of psychology at the University of Iowa and corresponding author of the study.

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'Unlike prior attempts to teach words to primates, dogs, and parrots, we used neither elaborate shaping methods nor social cues,' Wasserman says of the study, which appears online in the journal Cognition. 'And our pigeons were trained on all 16 categories simultaneously, a much closer analog of how children learn words and categories.'

For researchers like Wasserman, who has been studying animal intelligence for decades, this latest experiment is further proof that animals—whether primates, birds, or dogs—are smarter than once presumed and have more to teach scientists.

'It is certainly no simple task to investigate animal cognition; But, as our methods have improved, so too have our understanding and appreciation of animal intelligence,' he says.

'Differences between humans and animals must indeed exist: many are already known. But, they may be outnumbered by similarities. Our research on categorization in pigeons suggests that those similarities may even extend to how children learn words.'

Peck the symbol

Wasserman says the pigeon experiment comes from a project published in 1988 and featured in the New York Times in which University of Iowa researchers discovered pigeons could distinguish among four categories of objects.

This time, the researchers used a computerized version of the 'name game' in which three pigeons were shown 128 black-and-white photos of objects from 16 basic categories: baby, bottle, cake, car, cracker, dog, duck, fish, flower, hat, key, pen, phone, plane, shoe, tree.

The birds then had to peck on one of two different symbols: the correct one for that photo and an incorrect one that was randomly chosen from one of the remaining 15 categories. The pigeons not only succeeded in learning the task, but they also reliably transferred the learning to four new photos from each of the 16 categories.

In all these cases, discrimination is quite easy for humans, even though the classes are so complex that no simple distinguishing algorithm or rule can be specified. It has therefore been argued^{[citation needed]} that pigeons are able to form 'concepts' or 'categories' similar to humans, but that interpretation is controversial. Nevertheless, the experiments remain important and often cited examples in cognitive science.

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Game Journalist Cuphead And Pigeon Intelligence Gifts

In a 2015 paper published by Levenson et al.^[2] it was shown that rock dove pigeons (Columba livia), which share many visual system properties with humans, can serve as promising surrogate observers of medical images, a capability not previously documented. The birds were tested on their ability to distinguish benign from malignant human breast histopathology images and could even apply their learnings to previously unseen images. However when faced with a more challenging task, they reverted to image memorisation and thus showed little generalisation to novel examples.

See also[edit]

References[edit]

1. ^Epstein, Lanza, & Skinner (1981) R. Epstein, R.P. Lanza and B.F. Skinner, 'Self-awareness' in the pigeon, Science 212 695-696
2. ^ ^abLevenson, Richard M.; Krupinski, Elizabeth A.; Navarro, Victor M.; Wasserman, Edward A. (2015-11-18). 'Pigeons (Columba livia) as Trainable Observers of Pathology and Radiology Breast Cancer Images'. PLOS ONE. 10 (11): e0141357. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0141357. ISSN1932-6203. PMC4651348. PMID26581091.

• Watanabe, S.: 'Van Gogh, Chagall and Pigeons: Picture Discrimination in Pigeons and Humans', Animal Cognition, vol. 4, nos. 3-4 (2001), pp. 147–151.
• Huber, Ludwig. 'Visual Categorization in Pigeons'.
• Porter, D. and Neuringer, A. 'Music discriminations by pigeons.' Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behaviour Processes, 10 (1984), pp. 138–148

External links[edit]

• Avian Visual Cognition edited by Robert G. Cook - a cyber book containing much material about pigeons

Pigeons have better eyesight than humans do and have been trained by the US Coast Guard to spot orange life jackets of people lost at sea. They also carried messages for the US Army during World Wars I and II. (Credit: iStockphoto)

Pigeons can categorize and name both natural and human-made objects—and not just a few. The birds in a new study categorized 128 photographs into 16 categories.

The finding suggests a similarity between how pigeons learn the equivalent of words and the way children do, according to Ed Wasserman, professor of psychology at the University of Iowa and corresponding author of the study.

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'Unlike prior attempts to teach words to primates, dogs, and parrots, we used neither elaborate shaping methods nor social cues,' Wasserman says of the study, which appears online in the journal Cognition. 'And our pigeons were trained on all 16 categories simultaneously, a much closer analog of how children learn words and categories.'

For researchers like Wasserman, who has been studying animal intelligence for decades, this latest experiment is further proof that animals—whether primates, birds, or dogs—are smarter than once presumed and have more to teach scientists.

'It is certainly no simple task to investigate animal cognition; But, as our methods have improved, so too have our understanding and appreciation of animal intelligence,' he says.

'Differences between humans and animals must indeed exist: many are already known. But, they may be outnumbered by similarities. Our research on categorization in pigeons suggests that those similarities may even extend to how children learn words.'

Peck the symbol

Wasserman says the pigeon experiment comes from a project published in 1988 and featured in the New York Times in which University of Iowa researchers discovered pigeons could distinguish among four categories of objects.

This time, the researchers used a computerized version of the 'name game' in which three pigeons were shown 128 black-and-white photos of objects from 16 basic categories: baby, bottle, cake, car, cracker, dog, duck, fish, flower, hat, key, pen, phone, plane, shoe, tree.

The birds then had to peck on one of two different symbols: the correct one for that photo and an incorrect one that was randomly chosen from one of the remaining 15 categories. The pigeons not only succeeded in learning the task, but they also reliably transferred the learning to four new photos from each of the 16 categories.

Smarter than your average bird

Pigeons have long been known to be smarter than your average bird—or many other animals, for that matter. Among their many talents, pigeons have a 'homing instinct' that helps them find their way home from hundreds of miles away, even when blindfolded.

They have better eyesight than humans do and have been trained by the US Coast Guard to spot orange life jackets of people lost at sea. They carried messages for the US Army during World Wars I and II, saving lives and providing vital strategic information.

The researchers say their expanded experiment represents the first purely associative animal model that captures an essential ingredient of word learning—the many-to-many mapping between stimuli and responses.

'Ours is a computerized task that can be provided to any animal, it doesn't have to be pigeons,' says psychologist Bob McMurray, a coauthor of the study. 'These methods can be used with any type of animal that can interact with a computer screen.'

How children learn

McMurray says the research shows the mechanisms by which children learn words might not be unique to humans.

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'Children are confronted with an immense task of learning thousands of words without a lot of background knowledge to go on,' he says. 'For a long time, people thought that such learning is special to humans. What this research shows is that the mechanisms by which children solve this huge problem may be mechanisms that are shared with many species.'

Wasserman acknowledges the recent pigeon study is not a direct analogue of word-learning in children and more work needs to be done. Nonetheless, the model used in the study could lead to a better understanding of the associative principles involved in children's word learning.

'That's the parallel that we're pursuing,' he says, 'but a single project—however innovative it may be—will not suffice to answer such a provocative question.'

National Institute of Mental Health, National Eye Institute, and National Institute of Deafness and Other Communication Disorders supported the research.

Source: University of Iowa